What are microorganisms?
  • 30 blood proteins that work in concert to destroy bacteria and certain viruses
  • Epidemiology is the study of frequency and distribution of diseases*CDC in US national*WHO for UN world
  • chemotaxis = tendency of cells to migrate in response to a specific chemical stimulus given off at a site of injury or infection
  • microscopic organisms, or microbesincludes bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae and helminths
CHAPTER 6- VIRUSES
  • change in DNA, permanent inheritable alteration in DNA sequence or content of a cell
  • congenital absence or immaturity of thymus gland
  • find evidence of a microbe in every case of disease.
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What is the effect of antibiotic use in animal feed?
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
  • Antigen= molecules that stimulate a response by T and B cells, proteins or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells and viruses*highly individual, * stimulate specific immunity
What is a syndrome?
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • substance that is composed of a single species
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
  • Mesophile =optimum growth temperature 20-40 C*majority of medically significant microorganisms* most human pathogens are 30-40 C (body temp)
Compare and contrast acute vs. chronic infection
  • Phase= D in diagram* limiting factors intensify, * cells begin to die at exponential rate* perishing in their own wastes*cells are lysing
  • 1st Macrophages - best killing cells, fixed in tissues for life2nd Neutrophils- quickest to site, lesser killing ability3rd Eosinophils-minor role
  • Morbidity= # people INFECTED with a diseaseMortality= # of DEATHS from a disease
  • Acute infection= rapid and short lived (flu, strep throat)Chronic infection= slow progress, persistent (TB, lyme)
What is the final electron acceptor in fermentation?
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • Fermentation* uses organic compounds, alcohols and acids as final electron acceptor (produces lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, CO2)
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
  • Mesophile =optimum growth temperature 20-40 C*majority of medically significant microorganisms* most human pathogens are 30-40 C (body temp)
What is a helminth? Give examples.
  • Exponential Growth Phase (log phase) = C*logarithmic growth* growth increases drastically*phase continues as long as nutrients and environment is favorable
  • IgM* pentagon, 10 binding sites, pentamer* J chain in center*6%* produced at first response to antigen* fixes complement (along with IgG) * makes up iso antibodies- blood antibodies
  • Helminths- collective term for tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms Ex: pinworm (roundworm) cestode (tapeworm) tremetode (liver fluke)
  • *Nutrient scavenging- biofilms grow in low nutrient or oligotrophic conditions. The EPS of the biofilm matrix is negatively charged and hydrophobic. These properties enable the biofilm to concentrate ions and dissolved organic carbon compounds from the oligotrophic bulk fluid. Thus biofilms can grow in nutrient conditions that do not permit the growth of planktonic cells*Variety of microniches, broader range of habitatssteep gradients of many growth factors, including oxygen and sulfide, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH).*Rich ground for genetic transfer between microbes
Describe bacteriophage therapy.
  • Broad spectrum= drugs effective against more than one group of bacteriaEx: Tetracyclines, sulfonamides, cephalosporinsNarrow spectrum= drug that generally targets a specific group of bacteriaEx: penicillins, streptomycin, polymyxins
  • Bacteriophage therapy uses mixtures of bacteriophages as medicines for bacterial infections. In Europe these have had success against the challenges of biofilm infections and antibiotic resistant infections. *another use is incorporating phages into wound dressings* advantage- bacteriophages are very specific- one species of bacterium is affected, leaving the normal biota alone
  • Universal diagnostic staining technique, differential stain gram positive= stain purple gram negative= stain pinkBasis for bacterial taxonomy, cell wall structure, ID and diagnosis of infection
  • Antiviral drugs1. bar attachment of virus to host (Adsorption)2. bar penetration of virus into host (Penetration)3. Block transcription and translation of viral molecules (Synthesis)4. Prevent maturation of viral particles (Assembly- Release)
Give examples of two energy carriers (coenzymes) used by the cell for the Electron Transport Chain.
  • polymerase= makes more DNA or RNAreplicase= copy RNAreverse transcriptase- makes DNA from RNA (opposite of what is normally done)
  • • Organic coenzymes • NAD/NADH (oxidized/reduced forms) of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide *vitamin niacin• FAD/FADH (oxidized/reduced forms), from riboflavin B12 OIL RIGOxidation Is Loss (of e-), Reduction Is Gain.
  • Antigen= molecules that stimulate a response by T and B cells, proteins or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells and viruses*highly individual, * stimulate specific immunity
  • Incubation Period= time from initial entry to first symptoms, agent is multiplyingProdomal Period= earliest notable symptomsInvasion Period= well established microbe, most signs and symptoms, highest virulenceCovalescent Period= recovery, healing by immune response **IPIC
What is transposons? Is this a direct or indirect gene transfer?
  • TRANSPOSONS*"Jumping Genes"* genes move from one location within chromosome to next, or to a plasmid* changes in traits (Indian corn)*Direct and Indirect* drug resistance*Barbara McClintock discovered
  • Exponential Growth Phase (log phase) = C*logarithmic growth* growth increases drastically*phase continues as long as nutrients and environment is favorable
  • protozoan cyst= dormant resting stage when environmental conditions become unfavorable, thick cuticle around the cell membrane makes it resistant to heat, drying and chemicals
  • one side of the helix runs in in opposite directions to the other5' to 3'3' to 5'
Explain the different types of nucleic acid possible in viruses-*Positive sense RNA*Negative sense RNA*DNA- ds or ss?* RNA- ds or ss?
  • COVERING-*envelope (phospholipid bilayer) taken from host cell, (great for fooling the host into thinking it is not an invader*spikes= protruding glycoproteins for attachment to host cell, can be found on capsid or enveloped virusCENTRAL CORE-enzymes matrix proteins
  • Positive sense RNA- ready to be translated into proteinsNegative sense RNA- need to be converted into proper form before translation can occurDNA- can be double or single strandedRNA- can be double or single stranded
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
What is a pathogen?
  • a complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins.* operates in conjunction with an enzyme* transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions
  • microscopic organisms, or microbesincludes bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae and helminths
  • substance that is composed of a single species
  • any agent (usually a virus, bacteria, fungus, protozoan or helminth) that causes disease
What is a prion?
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • 1. New enzymes are synthesized that inactivate a drug. (new genes acquired) 2. Permeability or uptake of drug is decreased. (mutation)3. Drug is immediately eliminated (new genes acquired)4. Binding sites for drug are decreased in number or affinity (mutation or new genes)5. Metabolic pathway shut down (mutation)
  • prion= infectious protein fibril- infects brain tissue- spongiform enchephalopathies(brain looks like a sponge)- long period of latency- mental derangement, loss of muscle control, progressive and fatalExamples: Cruetzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) affects Central Nervous system in humansMad Cow disease- first incidence of prion disease transmission from bovine to humansScrapie in sheep, mink, elk
  • a complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins.* operates in conjunction with an enzyme* transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions
Identify the type of hypersensitivity- transfusion reaction
  • food allergies- Type I (allergic reaction)
  • Transfusion Reaction- Type II (antibody mediated)
  • Poison ivy- Type IV (T cell mediated)
  • antisepsis= destroys MOST microbeson body surfacesDegermation= Antisepsis
Describe each type and what are the likely results of the following types of point mutations?missensenonsensesilentframeshift (insertion or deletion)
  • Fecal transplant therapy transfers healthy feces (with their "good" microbiota) to affected patients via colonoscopy*goal is to restore healthy microbiota
  • aerobe = aerobic organism, can use oxygen in metabolismAnaerobes= anaerobic respiration*lacks enzymes for using oxygen in respiration* strict or obligate anaerobes die in presence of free O2*live in lakes, oceans, soils, large intestine, oral cavityfacultative anaerobe= an aerobe that does not require oxygen, capable of growth in the absence of oxygen, will metabolize with oxygen if present (yields more ATP), ferments if O2 is absent
  • 1. missense= change in the code, placement of a different AA (creates faulty nonfunction protein)2. Nonsense= changing normal AA--> Stop codon(nonfunctional protein)3. Silent= alters a base, but does not change AA (no change in function)4. Frameshift- addition or deletion of a base, shifts the reading frame at the ribosome, affects all AA after on the strand (nonfunctional protein)
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
What is a selective media?
  • a selective media contains one or more agents that inhibit the growth of a microbe or microbes (A, B, C) but not others (D) and thereby "select" microbe D and allow it to growEx: Mannitol Salt Agar
  • Recombinant DNA= transfer of genetic material from one organism to another to deliberately alter DNA*also known as genetic engineering* creates novel products
  • a complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins.* operates in conjunction with an enzyme* transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
What is the difference between an epitope and a hapten?
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • IgE* Y shape* least 0.002%*binds to mast cells and basophils* allergy antigen* worm infections* Hypersensitivity (food allergies, bee stings, nuts, etc)
  • IgA* bow tie shape with J chain in middle* Dimer * 13%* secretory component, mucous membranes, milk, saliva, where microbes enter, mouth and nose* no memory
  • Neutralization= antibodies fill surface receptors prevent from attaching normally, can't infect cells (flu vaccine)
What happens in the primary response to an antigen?
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • *selective toxicity to microbe but nontoxic to host* Microbicidal rather than microbistatic* Relatively soluble, functions even in dilute body fluids* Remain potent long enough to act* Doesn't lead to resistance*Compliments host defenses.*Readily deliverable to site of infection*Reasonably priced* Doesn't lead to host allergies
  • Primary response (first exposure)1. latent period- lack of antibodies, antigen is being concentrated in lymphoid tissue, processed by correct clones of B cells, plasma cells synthesize antibodies)2. IgM- increases first then levels and declines (T cell independent, no memory cells yet)3. IgG- increases as IgM decreases (T cell dependent, antigen presenting cell- T cell- T helpers-- memory cells)*Variable time interval- memory cells are seeded through lymph system
What is endotoxin?
  • Recombinant DNA= transfer of genetic material from one organism to another to deliberately alter DNA*also known as genetic engineering* creates novel products
  • a selective media contains one or more agents that inhibit the growth of a microbe or microbes (A, B, C) but not others (D) and thereby "select" microbe D and allow it to growEx: Mannitol Salt Agar
  • endotoxin= phospholipid-polysaccharide complex that is an integral part of gram-negative bacterial cell walls, can cause severe shock and fever
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
What is the function of a healthy immune system?
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • cell membrane= thin sheet of lipid and protein regulates what enters and leaves the cell
  • inclusion (granule)= stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
CHAPTER 9- MICROBIAL GENETICS
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  • Psychrophile= cold loveroptimum temperature below 15 C (capable of growth 0-20 C)
  • CENTRAL CORE-nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA but not both)COVERING-protein covering (capsid)
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Describe the Gram stain and how it is used in bacterial identification.
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
  • Enveloped viruses have the host cells phospholipid bilayer surrounding their core. (replaces host proteins with viral proteins)Naked viruses are simply nucleic acid core + capsid * no envelope
  • Universal diagnostic staining technique, differential stain gram positive= stain purple gram negative= stain pinkBasis for bacterial taxonomy, cell wall structure, ID and diagnosis of infection
  • *algae cell wall- made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.* photosynthetic, make up floating community of plankton*essential role in aquatic food web* produce most of the earth's oxygen
What is the function of the bacterial plasmids?
  • *Nutrient scavenging- biofilms grow in low nutrient or oligotrophic conditions. The EPS of the biofilm matrix is negatively charged and hydrophobic. These properties enable the biofilm to concentrate ions and dissolved organic carbon compounds from the oligotrophic bulk fluid. Thus biofilms can grow in nutrient conditions that do not permit the growth of planktonic cells*Variety of microniches, broader range of habitatssteep gradients of many growth factors, including oxygen and sulfide, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH).*Rich ground for genetic transfer between microbes
  • cell membrane= thin sheet of lipid and protein regulates what enters and leaves the cell
  • Plasmids= double stranded DNA circle containing extra genes
  • CONJUGATION* bacterial "sex"* donor cell (F+) forms a pilus with recipient (F-)* plasmid is copied and transferred through pilus* Direct transfer method.*Drug resistance, resistance to metals, toxin production, antibiotic resistance
What is the function of a lysozyme?
  • *Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation.*created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.*renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization
  • small enzyme that attacks the protective cell walls of bacteria. Lysozyme breaks the carbohydrate chains in the cell wall, destroying the structural integrity of the cell wall. The bacteria burst under their own internal pressure.*Our tears and mucus contain lysozyme to resist infection of our exposed surfaces.
  • Bacteriophage therapy uses mixtures of bacteriophages as medicines for bacterial infections. In Europe these have had success against the challenges of biofilm infections and antibiotic resistant infections. *another use is incorporating phages into wound dressings* advantage- bacteriophages are very specific- one species of bacterium is affected, leaving the normal biota alone
  • Genetic Engineering= A field involving deliberate alterations (recombinations) of the genomes of microbes, plants and animals through special technological processes
What is the role of microbes in decomposition?
  • Fermentation* uses organic compounds, alcohols and acids as final electron acceptor (produces lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, CO2)
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
  • congenital absence or immaturity of thymus gland
What is chemotaxis?
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
  • chemotaxis = tendency of cells to migrate in response to a specific chemical stimulus given off at a site of injury or infection
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
  • 1. Chemotactic Factors (C3a and C5a)2. Opsonization- attach to phagocytes enhancing phagocytosis3. Membrane Attack Complex- pop holes in membranes and enveloped viruses (C6, 7, 8 and 9)
What is a mesophile's optimum temperature and range?
  • Mesophile =optimum growth temperature 20-40 C*majority of medically significant microorganisms* most human pathogens are 30-40 C (body temp)
  • chemotaxis = tendency of cells to migrate in response to a specific chemical stimulus given off at a site of injury or infection
  • Constructed lenses to make microscope and examined scrapings from teeth, rainwater from a pot, and threads in fabrics. "Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology"
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
B cell response- neutralization
  • Antitoxin= special type of antibody that neutralized bacterial exotoxins
  • IgG* Y shaped* 80%, highest * Memory, long term immunity* crosses placenta* Fc binds to phagocytes* neutralizes, opsonizes, fixes complement
  • IgD* Y shape*1%* function unknown* receptor on B cells
  • Neutralization= antibodies fill surface receptors prevent from attaching normally, can't infect cells (flu vaccine)
Describe the structure of B cell receptors (antibodies) Fab, Fc, light, heavy chains, constant and variable regions, Complement binding site)
  • Stationary Growth Phase = C in diagram* population enters survival mode* live= death* food and oxygen running out, toxic byproducts, waste buildup* cells stop growing or grow slowly
  • IgA* bow tie shape with J chain in middle* Dimer * 13%* secretory component, mucous membranes, milk, saliva, where microbes enter, mouth and nose* no memory
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • a= antigen binding sites, variableb= light chain, Fab antigen binding fragmentsc= heavy chain, Fc crystallization fragments*disulfide bonding between chains* hinge region where light and heavy join upd= constant regione= variable region (antigen binding sites vary)* compliment binding site- midway down heavy chains, can bind with other antibodies* carbohydrates at base to attach to cells
What is occurring during conjugation? Is this a direct or indirect gene transfer?
  • CONJUGATION* bacterial "sex"* donor cell (F+) forms a pilus with recipient (F-)* plasmid is copied and transferred through pilus* Direct transfer method.*Drug resistance, resistance to metals, toxin production, antibiotic resistance
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • Opsonization= Antibodies binds to microbe- encourages phagocytosis
  • Helminths- collective term for tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms Ex: pinworm (roundworm) cestode (tapeworm) tremetode (liver fluke)
What is the Therapeutic index?
  • pyrogens are circulating substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • inclusion (granule)= stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed
8.Rank the following methods of lowering activation energy. increase substrate concentration increase temperature increase enzyme concentration
  • Most effective- increase enzyme concentration- increase substrate concentrationLeast effective- increase temperature (risk of denaturing protein)
  • a selective media contains one or more agents that inhibit the growth of a microbe or microbes (A, B, C) but not others (D) and thereby "select" microbe D and allow it to growEx: Mannitol Salt Agar
  • Both involved in making proteins.transcription DNA (code,triplets) --> mRNA (codon)translation mRNA (codon)--> amino acid sequence
  • Positive sense RNA- ready to be translated into proteinsNegative sense RNA- need to be converted into proper form before translation can occurDNA- can be double or single strandedRNA- can be double or single stranded
Identify the type of hypersensitivity- food allergies
  • Anaerobic Respiration*SO4, NO3, CO3 ions are electron acceptors
  • food allergies- Type I (allergic reaction)
  • congenital absence or immaturity of thymus gland
  • Atopy and anaphylaxis - Type I (allergic reaction)
What is the final electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration?
  • pyrogens are circulating substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
  • congenital absence or immaturity of thymus gland
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
  • Anaerobic Respiration*SO4, NO3, CO3 ions are electron acceptors
What is epidemiology the study of?
  • endotoxin= phospholipid-polysaccharide complex that is an integral part of gram-negative bacterial cell walls, can cause severe shock and fever
  • chemotaxis = tendency of cells to migrate in response to a specific chemical stimulus given off at a site of injury or infection
  • Epidemiology is the study of frequency and distribution of diseases*CDC in US national*WHO for UN world
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
What is an antigen (also referred to as an immunogen)?
  • Antigen= molecules that stimulate a response by T and B cells, proteins or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells and viruses*highly individual, * stimulate specific immunity
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
What are the four steps of the classical complement pathway?
  • Transmission Electron Microscope- produces image by transmitting electrons through the specimen, extremely thin slices, stained or coated with metals, view detailed structure of cells Scanning electron Microscope- extremely detailed 3D view, bombards surface of a whole metal coated specimen with electrons while scanning back and forth over it, image is black and white
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
  • 1. INITIATION- C1 components bind to antibodies bond to a foreign cell2. AMPLIFICATION AND CASCADE- cascade of enzymatic actions, C1--> C5 is cleaved and bound to membrane 3. POLYMERIZATION- C5 product becomes site for assembly of attack complex made of later C proteins4. MEMBRANE ATTACK- large donut-shaped enzyme complex that punctures small pores through the membrane, leading to cell lysis
  • Gene Probes are used to detect the presence of a microbe by using a known labeled sequence of DNA to detect DNA in mixture*If DNA matches this indicates that the organism is present* quick, very sensitive in low numbers* can be used to detect microbes in body products* diagnosing the cause of infection, bacteria or virus?
What are four modes of action taken by Antiviral drugs?
  • Antiviral drugs1. bar attachment of virus to host (Adsorption)2. bar penetration of virus into host (Penetration)3. Block transcription and translation of viral molecules (Synthesis)4. Prevent maturation of viral particles (Assembly- Release)
  • Universal diagnostic staining technique, differential stain gram positive= stain purple gram negative= stain pinkBasis for bacterial taxonomy, cell wall structure, ID and diagnosis of infection
  • Natural Passive- get antibodies from someone else- IgG antibodies circulating from Mom's blood- go through placenta- IgA mom's milk (secretory)* only lasts short time, 6 months Natural Active- you make your own antibodies after being exposed to antigen
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
What is recombinant DNA?
  • Recombinant DNA= transfer of genetic material from one organism to another to deliberately alter DNA*also known as genetic engineering* creates novel products
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
  • a complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins.* operates in conjunction with an enzyme* transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
What was the contribution of Semmelweis?
  • pyrogens are circulating substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • Capital Genus, lower case species name(binomial system of nomenclature) *italicized if typed or underlined if written
  • Superantigens= bacterial toxins, potent stimuli for T cells, overwhelming release of cytokines and cell deathEx: staph toxins- toxic shock syndrome and certain autoimmune diseases
What is a superantigen? Example
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • Constructed lenses to make microscope and examined scrapings from teeth, rainwater from a pot, and threads in fabrics. "Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology"
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • Superantigens= bacterial toxins, potent stimuli for T cells, overwhelming release of cytokines and cell deathEx: staph toxins- toxic shock syndrome and certain autoimmune diseases
Classes of Immunoglobulins- IgA
  • Neutralization= antibodies fill surface receptors prevent from attaching normally, can't infect cells (flu vaccine)
  • IgG* Y shaped* 80%, highest * Memory, long term immunity* crosses placenta* Fc binds to phagocytes* neutralizes, opsonizes, fixes complement
  • Diapedesis= white blood cells squeeze themselves between spaces in the blood vessel wall, pool of WBC adhere to the endothelial wall, poised to migrate out of the vessel into the tissue space
  • IgA* bow tie shape with J chain in middle* Dimer * 13%* secretory component, mucous membranes, milk, saliva, where microbes enter, mouth and nose* no memory
Compare and contrast vertical and horizontal transmission of diseases.
  • Prokaryotes- no nucleus, bacteria, simple, ancientEukaryotes- have a nucleus, fungi, protozoan, algae, plant, complex
  • Vertical- from parent to offspringHorizontal- from person to person or intermediate
  • 1. Toxicity to organs2. Allergic responses to drugs3. suppression and alteration of the normal microbiota
  • Normal human microbiota include-bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungiNOT- helminths or algae
What is septicemia?
  • *Septicemia= general term for microbes that are multiplying in the blood
  • *Each daughter molecule is identical to the parent strand* Neither strand is completely new* Half of each strand is the original template parent strand and the other half is new* an original parent DNA strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand comprise a new DNA molecule
  • Epidemic= infectious disease transmitted at much higher incidence (a lot of dots clustered in areas)Endemic= "always there", steady numbers over time in a geographic location (single dots in many different locations)Pandemic= disease that is worldwide, higher incidence
  • 1. missense= change in the code, placement of a different AA (creates faulty nonfunction protein)2. Nonsense= changing normal AA--> Stop codon(nonfunctional protein)3. Silent= alters a base, but does not change AA (no change in function)4. Frameshift- addition or deletion of a base, shifts the reading frame at the ribosome, affects all AA after on the strand (nonfunctional protein)
What is the function of the bacterial endospores?
  • Endospores= dormant body formed within some bacteria (Bacillus and Chlostridium) that allows for their survival in adverse conditions
  • ribosomes= protein synthesis
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • inclusion (granule)= stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed
What is bioremediation?
  • introduction of microbes into the environment to restore stability or to clean up toxic pollutants, break down chemicals that would be harmful to other organisms
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • Superantigens= bacterial toxins, potent stimuli for T cells, overwhelming release of cytokines and cell deathEx: staph toxins- toxic shock syndrome and certain autoimmune diseases
What is the cause of SCIDS?
  • *********************************************
  • **********************************************
  • genetic defect in development of T and B cells
  • substance that is composed of a single species
What are some characteristics of enzymes?
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • *reusable*3rd and 4th levels determine active site structure*lower activation energy to get a reaction started*very specific substrate for each type of enzyme*affected by pH, temperature and chemicals*active site where bonds of substrate are broken or formed*don't participate in reaction*"lock and key" analogy
  • Stationary Growth Phase = C in diagram* population enters survival mode* live= death* food and oxygen running out, toxic byproducts, waste buildup* cells stop growing or grow slowly
  • TRANSFORMATION* cell receiving new DNA is genetically "transformed"* DNA from dead cells- released into environment* taken up by living cells* must be "competent" cell, have a receptor for the DNA similar to its own (if different, it will be cut up)* Griffith's mouse experiment* Indirect transfer method
What are three unique characteristics of viruses?They are infectious ____________ (rather than organisms)They can be active or inactive. (Explain difference)They are obligate intracellular parasites. (Explain.)
  • *selective toxicity to microbe but nontoxic to host* Microbicidal rather than microbistatic* Relatively soluble, functions even in dilute body fluids* Remain potent long enough to act* Doesn't lead to resistance*Compliments host defenses.*Readily deliverable to site of infection*Reasonably priced* Doesn't lead to host allergies
  • Infectious particles.Active= replicating inside the host cellInactive= not replicating inside the host cellObligate intracellular parasites= require a host cell to replicate, harm the host cell in the process,
  • Incubation Period= time from initial entry to first symptoms, agent is multiplyingProdomal Period= earliest notable symptomsInvasion Period= well established microbe, most signs and symptoms, highest virulenceCovalescent Period= recovery, healing by immune response **IPIC
  • *Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation.*created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.*renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization
What is the function of the bacterial inclusion?
  • inclusion (granule)= stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
What is a thermophile's optimum temperature and range?
  • inclusion (granule)= stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
Match the term to descriptioncoating of microbe with antibodies to enhance phagocytosisantibodies fill surface receptors on microbe to prevent attachment to hostantibody that neutralizes bacterial endotoxinscross linkage of cells or particles into large clumps
  • *selective toxicity to microbe but nontoxic to host* Microbicidal rather than microbistatic* Relatively soluble, functions even in dilute body fluids* Remain potent long enough to act* Doesn't lead to resistance*Compliments host defenses.*Readily deliverable to site of infection*Reasonably priced* Doesn't lead to host allergies
  • 1. coating of microbe with antibodies to enhance phagocytosis= opsonization2. antibodies fill surface receptors on microbe to prevent attachment to host= neutralization3. antibody that neutralizes bacterial endotoxins= antitoxin4. cross linkage of cells or particles into large clumps= agglutination
  • Positive sense RNA- ready to be translated into proteinsNegative sense RNA- need to be converted into proper form before translation can occurDNA- can be double or single strandedRNA- can be double or single stranded
  • 1. Chemotactic Factors (C3a and C5a)2. Opsonization- attach to phagocytes enhancing phagocytosis3. Membrane Attack Complex- pop holes in membranes and enveloped viruses (C6, 7, 8 and 9)
Compare the uses of transmission and scanning microscopes.
  • Transmission Electron Microscope- produces image by transmitting electrons through the specimen, extremely thin slices, stained or coated with metals, view detailed structure of cells Scanning electron Microscope- extremely detailed 3D view, bombards surface of a whole metal coated specimen with electrons while scanning back and forth over it, image is black and white
  • Fermentation* uses organic compounds, alcohols and acids as final electron acceptor (produces lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, CO2)
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
Define the terms gene and genome
  • gene= a segment of DNA that contains the information to make a proteingenome= sum total of all the genetic information in an organism
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • Constructed lenses to make microscope and examined scrapings from teeth, rainwater from a pot, and threads in fabrics. "Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology"
What is the role of interleuken 1 in expansion of T cells?
  • What is the role of interleuken 1 in expansion of T cells? **GROWTH FACTOR FOR T helper CELLS AND CYTOTOXIC CELLS- When an Antigen presenting cell and interluken 1 is secreted to a T-helper cell, the T helper cells becomes activated and releases interleukin 2- which is a growth factor for the T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells. ---> produces a large population of genetically identical daughter cells-- some memory cells,--- some activate B cells
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
  • *selective toxicity to microbe but nontoxic to host* Microbicidal rather than microbistatic* Relatively soluble, functions even in dilute body fluids* Remain potent long enough to act* Doesn't lead to resistance*Compliments host defenses.*Readily deliverable to site of infection*Reasonably priced* Doesn't lead to host allergies
  • Transmission Electron Microscope- produces image by transmitting electrons through the specimen, extremely thin slices, stained or coated with metals, view detailed structure of cells Scanning electron Microscope- extremely detailed 3D view, bombards surface of a whole metal coated specimen with electrons while scanning back and forth over it, image is black and white
Antimicrobial Proteins- Interferon What is it? role?
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • *small protein, produced naturally by certain WBCs and tissue cells* released from cell- binds to neighboring cells* neighbors are activated to make AVP (antiviral proteins)* neighbors are protected from viral infection* used in therapy against certain viral infections and cancer
  • Mesophile =optimum growth temperature 20-40 C*majority of medically significant microorganisms* most human pathogens are 30-40 C (body temp)
  • *genetic engineering, GMOs, recombinant DNA technology, food industry, products in industrial settings, bioremediation, fuel sources
What was the contribution of Pasteur?
  • *Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation.*created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.*renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization
  • British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, promoted the idea of sterile portable ports while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients, distinguishing himself as the "father of modern surgery"
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
What is the purpose of the gene probe technique (hybridization)?
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
  • Gene Probes are used to detect the presence of a microbe by using a known labeled sequence of DNA to detect DNA in mixture*If DNA matches this indicates that the organism is present* quick, very sensitive in low numbers* can be used to detect microbes in body products* diagnosing the cause of infection, bacteria or virus?
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
The term used to describe all of the chemical reactions within a cell is _______________.
  • agammaglobulinemia= absence of gamma globulin, which is the fraction of serum that contains immunoglobulinsT cell function will be normalno Ig antibodies can be made*Primary disease
  • Eukaryotes- ETC is in the inner mitochondrial membranesProkaryotes- ETC is in bacterial membrane
  • metabolism
  • • Organic coenzymes • NAD/NADH (oxidized/reduced forms) of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide *vitamin niacin• FAD/FADH (oxidized/reduced forms), from riboflavin B12 OIL RIGOxidation Is Loss (of e-), Reduction Is Gain.
What are some benefits to bacteria living in a biofilm?(80% of chronic infections caused by biofilms)
  • Primary response (first exposure)1. latent period- lack of antibodies, antigen is being concentrated in lymphoid tissue, processed by correct clones of B cells, plasma cells synthesize antibodies)2. IgM- increases first then levels and declines (T cell independent, no memory cells yet)3. IgG- increases as IgM decreases (T cell dependent, antigen presenting cell- T cell- T helpers-- memory cells)*Variable time interval- memory cells are seeded through lymph system
  • IgA* bow tie shape with J chain in middle* Dimer * 13%* secretory component, mucous membranes, milk, saliva, where microbes enter, mouth and nose* no memory
  • Helminths- collective term for tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms Ex: pinworm (roundworm) cestode (tapeworm) tremetode (liver fluke)
  • *Nutrient scavenging- biofilms grow in low nutrient or oligotrophic conditions. The EPS of the biofilm matrix is negatively charged and hydrophobic. These properties enable the biofilm to concentrate ions and dissolved organic carbon compounds from the oligotrophic bulk fluid. Thus biofilms can grow in nutrient conditions that do not permit the growth of planktonic cells*Variety of microniches, broader range of habitatssteep gradients of many growth factors, including oxygen and sulfide, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH).*Rich ground for genetic transfer between microbes
What does denaturation mean?
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • Denaturation= process by which the weak bonds that collectively maintain the native shape of the apoenzyme are broken, prevents substrate from attaching to active site (high or low temps, pH, certain chemicals)
  • Constructed lenses to make microscope and examined scrapings from teeth, rainwater from a pot, and threads in fabrics. "Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology"
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
What is occurring in diapedesis?
  • An antibody ( or immunoglobulin) is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells and used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects (e.g., bacteria, viruses). The antibody recognizes a unique part of an antigen (foreign object).
  • protozoan cyst= dormant resting stage when environmental conditions become unfavorable, thick cuticle around the cell membrane makes it resistant to heat, drying and chemicals
  • IgE* Y shape* least 0.002%*binds to mast cells and basophils* allergy antigen* worm infections* Hypersensitivity (food allergies, bee stings, nuts, etc)
  • Diapedesis= white blood cells squeeze themselves between spaces in the blood vessel wall, pool of WBC adhere to the endothelial wall, poised to migrate out of the vessel into the tissue space
What is agammaglobulinemia? What type of immunodeficiency disease is this (primary or secondary)?
  • Both are made of DNA, but the chromosome is the essential genes, double stranded plasmid is smaller, circular and contains tiny extra non essential pieces of DNA
  • agammaglobulinemia= absence of gamma globulin, which is the fraction of serum that contains immunoglobulinsT cell function will be normalno Ig antibodies can be made*Primary disease
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
  • Genetic Engineering= A field involving deliberate alterations (recombinations) of the genomes of microbes, plants and animals through special technological processes
DNA replication is "semi-conservative". What does this mean?
  • Incubation Period= time from initial entry to first symptoms, agent is multiplyingProdomal Period= earliest notable symptomsInvasion Period= well established microbe, most signs and symptoms, highest virulenceCovalescent Period= recovery, healing by immune response **IPIC
  • Morbidity= # people INFECTED with a diseaseMortality= # of DEATHS from a disease
  • *Each daughter molecule is identical to the parent strand* Neither strand is completely new* Half of each strand is the original template parent strand and the other half is new* an original parent DNA strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand comprise a new DNA molecule
  • COVERING-*envelope (phospholipid bilayer) taken from host cell, (great for fooling the host into thinking it is not an invader*spikes= protruding glycoproteins for attachment to host cell, can be found on capsid or enveloped virusCENTRAL CORE-enzymes matrix proteins
What are important characteristics of an ideal antimicrobial drug?
  • What is the role of interleuken 1 in expansion of T cells? **GROWTH FACTOR FOR T helper CELLS AND CYTOTOXIC CELLS- When an Antigen presenting cell and interluken 1 is secreted to a T-helper cell, the T helper cells becomes activated and releases interleukin 2- which is a growth factor for the T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells. ---> produces a large population of genetically identical daughter cells-- some memory cells,--- some activate B cells
  • Artificial- get an injection*Artificial active= get vaccine injection, your body makes antibodies against antigens*Artificial passive= get injection of gamma globulin pooled from human serum, short lasting, 3 months
  • *selective toxicity to microbe but nontoxic to host* Microbicidal rather than microbistatic* Relatively soluble, functions even in dilute body fluids* Remain potent long enough to act* Doesn't lead to resistance*Compliments host defenses.*Readily deliverable to site of infection*Reasonably priced* Doesn't lead to host allergies
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
What is occurring during transduction? Is this a direct or indirect gene transfer?
  • Lag phase= A in diagram*slow growth (population appears not to be growing)*incubation period* newly inoculated cells require a period of adjustment(cells elongate, adjust to media, synthesize parts)
  • Stationary Growth Phase = C in diagram* population enters survival mode* live= death* food and oxygen running out, toxic byproducts, waste buildup* cells stop growing or grow slowly
  • TRANSDUCTION*"Piggyback DNA"* foreign DNA brought by a bacteriophage is incorporated into host cell chromosome*DNA from lysed bacterial cell- bacteriophage carries*DNA recombines with new host cell chromosome*must be same species of bacteria*Indirect
  • CONJUGATION* bacterial "sex"* donor cell (F+) forms a pilus with recipient (F-)* plasmid is copied and transferred through pilus* Direct transfer method.*Drug resistance, resistance to metals, toxin production, antibiotic resistance
Classes of Immunoglobulins- IgE
  • Antitoxin= special type of antibody that neutralized bacterial exotoxins
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • Diapedesis= white blood cells squeeze themselves between spaces in the blood vessel wall, pool of WBC adhere to the endothelial wall, poised to migrate out of the vessel into the tissue space
  • IgE* Y shape* least 0.002%*binds to mast cells and basophils* allergy antigen* worm infections* Hypersensitivity (food allergies, bee stings, nuts, etc)
CHAPTER 5- EUKARYOTIC MICROBES
  • microscopic organisms, or microbesincludes bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae and helminths
  • find evidence of a microbe in every case of disease.
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Identify the type of hypersensitivity- hay fever
  • Transfusion Reaction- Type II (antibody mediated)
  • sterilization.=destruction of ALL microbes
  • hay fever- Type I (allergic reaction)
  • Aerobic Respiration* oxygen--> makes water at end of ETC
What does it mean to say DNA is antiparallel?
  • one side of the helix runs in in opposite directions to the other5' to 3'3' to 5'
  • IgM* pentagon, 10 binding sites, pentamer* J chain in center*6%* produced at first response to antigen* fixes complement (along with IgG) * makes up iso antibodies- blood antibodies
  • nucleoid= nuclear region or body that contains the bacterial chromosome
  • IgG* Y shaped* 80%, highest * Memory, long term immunity* crosses placenta* Fc binds to phagocytes* neutralizes, opsonizes, fixes complement
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic cellular respiration?
  • Psychrophile= cold loveroptimum temperature below 15 C (capable of growth 0-20 C)
  • Aerobic Respiration* oxygen--> makes water at end of ETC
  • cell membrane= thin sheet of lipid and protein regulates what enters and leaves the cell
  • ribosomes= protein synthesis
What is the function of the bacterial nucleoid?
  • Eukaryotes- ETC is in the inner mitochondrial membranesProkaryotes- ETC is in bacterial membrane
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
  • nucleoid= nuclear region or body that contains the bacterial chromosome
  • 30 blood proteins that work in concert to destroy bacteria and certain viruses
Rank the following as to resistance to physical and chemical control agents. (1 being highest, 9 being lowest) Enveloped virus Naked virus bacterial endospore vegetative bacteria yeast Mycobacterium Prions
  • Most effective- increase enzyme concentration- increase substrate concentrationLeast effective- increase temperature (risk of denaturing protein)
  • Highest resistance1. Prions2. Endospores3. Mycobacterium (waxy covering)5. vegetative bacteria (Gram -)6. fungal spores7. nonenveloped virus8. vegetative bacteria (Gram +)9. enveloped virusLeast resistant
  • Differential stain acid fast bacteria = pink non-acid fast bacteria= blue* detects Mycobacterium tuberculosis, mycolic acid in waxy outer coating hold the dye (carbol fuchsin) even when washed with acid alcohol
  • Infectious particles.Active= replicating inside the host cellInactive= not replicating inside the host cellObligate intracellular parasites= require a host cell to replicate, harm the host cell in the process,
Which of the following is NOT an antiseptic- gluteraldehyde H2O2 alcohol betadine merthiolate chlorohexidine
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
  • only steam autoclaving = sterilizing (kills all life and endospores)
  • Gluteraldehyde= sporicidal agent, high activity*H2O2 if very concentrated
What are the five general phases in the life cycle of animal viruses?
  • 1. Adsorption2. Penetration (uncoating)3. Synthesis4. Assembly5. ReleaseAPSAR
  • Prevalence= total number of EXSISTING cases/ total number of persons in populationIncidence = total number of NEW cases/ totaltotal number of persons in population
  • Phase= D in diagram* limiting factors intensify, * cells begin to die at exponential rate* perishing in their own wastes*cells are lysing
  • Morbidity= # people INFECTED with a diseaseMortality= # of DEATHS from a disease
Differentiate natural passive and natural active immunity.
  • Transmission Electron Microscope- produces image by transmitting electrons through the specimen, extremely thin slices, stained or coated with metals, view detailed structure of cells Scanning electron Microscope- extremely detailed 3D view, bombards surface of a whole metal coated specimen with electrons while scanning back and forth over it, image is black and white
  • Natural Passive- get antibodies from someone else- IgG antibodies circulating from Mom's blood- go through placenta- IgA mom's milk (secretory)* only lasts short time, 6 months Natural Active- you make your own antibodies after being exposed to antigen
  • Antiviral drugs1. bar attachment of virus to host (Adsorption)2. bar penetration of virus into host (Penetration)3. Block transcription and translation of viral molecules (Synthesis)4. Prevent maturation of viral particles (Assembly- Release)
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
Compare and contrast incidence vs. prevalence
  • Both involved in making proteins.transcription DNA (code,triplets) --> mRNA (codon)translation mRNA (codon)--> amino acid sequence
  • Prevalence= total number of EXSISTING cases/ total number of persons in populationIncidence = total number of NEW cases/ totaltotal number of persons in population
  • *Each daughter molecule is identical to the parent strand* Neither strand is completely new* Half of each strand is the original template parent strand and the other half is new* an original parent DNA strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand comprise a new DNA molecule
  • 1st Macrophages - best killing cells, fixed in tissues for life2nd Neutrophils- quickest to site, lesser killing ability3rd Eosinophils-minor role
Distinguish between enveloped and naked viruses.
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • Enveloped viruses have the host cells phospholipid bilayer surrounding their core. (replaces host proteins with viral proteins)Naked viruses are simply nucleic acid core + capsid * no envelope
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
What are the four targets for physical and chemical agents against microbes?
  • Gluteraldehyde= sporicidal agent, high activity*H2O2 if very concentrated
  • * Cell wall* Cell membrane* affect protein and DNA/RNA synthesis* alter protein functions
  • Vertical- from parent to offspringHorizontal- from person to person or intermediate
  • 1. Toxicity to organs2. Allergic responses to drugs3. suppression and alteration of the normal microbiota
Classes of Immunoglobulins- IgM
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • IgM* pentagon, 10 binding sites, pentamer* J chain in center*6%* produced at first response to antigen* fixes complement (along with IgG) * makes up iso antibodies- blood antibodies
  • An antibody ( or immunoglobulin) is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells and used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects (e.g., bacteria, viruses). The antibody recognizes a unique part of an antigen (foreign object).
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
CHAPTER 11- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONTROL
  • **********************************************
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  • Hemolytic disease of newborn- Type II (antibody mediated)
  • separate DNA fragments based on size
Compare and contrast morbidity vs. mortality
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
  • Prevalence= total number of EXSISTING cases/ total number of persons in populationIncidence = total number of NEW cases/ totaltotal number of persons in population
  • antisepsis= destroys MOST microbeson body surfacesDegermation= Antisepsis
  • Morbidity= # people INFECTED with a diseaseMortality= # of DEATHS from a disease
Describe fecal transplant therapy.
  • Fecal transplant therapy transfers healthy feces (with their "good" microbiota) to affected patients via colonoscopy*goal is to restore healthy microbiota
  • gene= a segment of DNA that contains the information to make a proteingenome= sum total of all the genetic information in an organism
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • Reverse transcriptase= enzyme possessed by retroviruses that carries out the reversion of RNA---> to DNA (a form of reverse transcription)
What does PCR stand for? What is its purpose?
  • pyrogens are circulating substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
  • 1. Toxicity to organs2. Allergic responses to drugs3. suppression and alteration of the normal microbiota
  • Normal human microbiota include-bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungiNOT- helminths or algae
  • PCR= Polymerase chain reactionPurpose- amplification of small amounts of DNA(make lots more)
Compare and contrast signs vs. symptoms of a disease
  • *Each daughter molecule is identical to the parent strand* Neither strand is completely new* Half of each strand is the original template parent strand and the other half is new* an original parent DNA strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand comprise a new DNA molecule
  • Epidemic= infectious disease transmitted at much higher incidence (a lot of dots clustered in areas)Endemic= "always there", steady numbers over time in a geographic location (single dots in many different locations)Pandemic= disease that is worldwide, higher incidence
  • Both involved in making proteins.transcription DNA (code,triplets) --> mRNA (codon)translation mRNA (codon)--> amino acid sequence
  • Signs= objective, observable evidence by another person, evidence of a microbe attackSymptoms- subjective evidence of a disease, sensed by PATIENT
What is the job of restriction endonucleases?
  • Aerobic Respiration* oxygen--> makes water at end of ETC
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
What is the difference between a primary and secondary immunodeficiency disease?
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • Both are made of DNA, but the chromosome is the essential genes, double stranded plasmid is smaller, circular and contains tiny extra non essential pieces of DNA
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
Describe Stationary Growth Phase.
  • Diapedesis= white blood cells squeeze themselves between spaces in the blood vessel wall, pool of WBC adhere to the endothelial wall, poised to migrate out of the vessel into the tissue space
  • Stationary Growth Phase = C in diagram* population enters survival mode* live= death* food and oxygen running out, toxic byproducts, waste buildup* cells stop growing or grow slowly
  • Exponential Growth Phase (log phase) = C*logarithmic growth* growth increases drastically*phase continues as long as nutrients and environment is favorable
  • Lag phase= A in diagram*slow growth (population appears not to be growing)*incubation period* newly inoculated cells require a period of adjustment(cells elongate, adjust to media, synthesize parts)
What is the difference between a bacterial chromosome and a plasmid?
  • Both are made of DNA, but the chromosome is the essential genes, double stranded plasmid is smaller, circular and contains tiny extra non essential pieces of DNA
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
Classes of Immunoglobulins - IgG
  • *reusable*3rd and 4th levels determine active site structure*lower activation energy to get a reaction started*very specific substrate for each type of enzyme*affected by pH, temperature and chemicals*active site where bonds of substrate are broken or formed*don't participate in reaction*"lock and key" analogy
  • IgE* Y shape* least 0.002%*binds to mast cells and basophils* allergy antigen* worm infections* Hypersensitivity (food allergies, bee stings, nuts, etc)
  • IgA* bow tie shape with J chain in middle* Dimer * 13%* secretory component, mucous membranes, milk, saliva, where microbes enter, mouth and nose* no memory
  • IgG* Y shaped* 80%, highest * Memory, long term immunity* crosses placenta* Fc binds to phagocytes* neutralizes, opsonizes, fixes complement
How do biofilms affect antibiotic therapy?
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
  • Capital Genus, lower case species name(binomial system of nomenclature) *italicized if typed or underlined if written
  • *1000 times less sensitive to the same antimicrobials *biofilm resistance*Biofilms layer and protect bacteria within*Strategy- drugs to block quorum-sensing pathways (communication) between microbes*Strategy- adding DNase to antibiotics to help with penetration of the antibiotic through the extracellular debris*Strategy- impregnate biomaterial with antibiotics prior to insertion to prevent colonization
  • 1. INITIATION- C1 components bind to antibodies bond to a foreign cell2. AMPLIFICATION AND CASCADE- cascade of enzymatic actions, C1--> C5 is cleaved and bound to membrane 3. POLYMERIZATION- C5 product becomes site for assembly of attack complex made of later C proteins4. MEMBRANE ATTACK- large donut-shaped enzyme complex that punctures small pores through the membrane, leading to cell lysis
What happens in the secondary response (anamnestic response) to an antigen?
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
  • Anamnestic= memory response1. exponential rise of IgG first (memory cells present)2. Lower increase of IgM*greater speed and intensity in second response, quick and potent
  • Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician whose work demonstrated that hand-washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth
  • Primary Immune Diseases= genetically induced deficiencies of B cells, T cells, the thymus or combinations of these, from birthSecondary Immune Diseases= caused by infection, organic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation, acquired
Describe the pathogenic protist- Plasmodium.
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
  • Malaria parasites are micro-organisms that belong to the genus Plasmodium. (insect as vector, human host for four different species of Plasmodium)treatment- quinine, chloroquine
  • Antimicrobial agents target-* cell wall - Penicillin* protein synthesis (50s and 30s of ribosomes)- Erythromycin, Tetracycline*Folic Acid Synthesis- Sulfa drugs* DNA or RNA- Fluoroquinoiones* Cell Membrane- Polymyxins
B cell response- Opsonization=
  • TRANSFORMATION* cell receiving new DNA is genetically "transformed"* DNA from dead cells- released into environment* taken up by living cells* must be "competent" cell, have a receptor for the DNA similar to its own (if different, it will be cut up)* Griffith's mouse experiment* Indirect transfer method
  • IgD* Y shape*1%* function unknown* receptor on B cells
  • Epitope= the molecular fragment that signals that a molecule is foreign.haptens= consist only of a determinant group, too small by themselves to elicit an immune response, links to a carrier group, ---> response
  • Opsonization= Antibodies binds to microbe- encourages phagocytosis
CHAPTER 4 PROKARYOTIC MICROBES (BACTERIA)
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What is genetic engineering?
  • Genetic Engineering= A field involving deliberate alterations (recombinations) of the genomes of microbes, plants and animals through special technological processes
  • Constructed lenses to make microscope and examined scrapings from teeth, rainwater from a pot, and threads in fabrics. "Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology"
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
  • introduction of microbes into the environment to restore stability or to clean up toxic pollutants, break down chemicals that would be harmful to other organisms
Compare and contrast catabolism and anabolism.Give examples of eachWhich is synonymous with "biosynthesis"?
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  • Transmission Electron Microscope- produces image by transmitting electrons through the specimen, extremely thin slices, stained or coated with metals, view detailed structure of cells Scanning electron Microscope- extremely detailed 3D view, bombards surface of a whole metal coated specimen with electrons while scanning back and forth over it, image is black and white
  • Both involved in making proteins.transcription DNA (code,triplets) --> mRNA (codon)translation mRNA (codon)--> amino acid sequence
  • Both are a part of metabolism.Catabolism is breaking down larger molecules and releases energy. Ex: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron transport chain, fermentation.Anabolism is building larger molecules from smaller subunits and requires energy. Ex: building lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, structures* synonymous with "biosynthesis"
What is the function of the bacterial cell membrane?
  • cell membrane= thin sheet of lipid and protein regulates what enters and leaves the cell
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
  • Psychrophile= cold loveroptimum temperature below 15 C (capable of growth 0-20 C)
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
What is a coenzyme?
  • endotoxin= phospholipid-polysaccharide complex that is an integral part of gram-negative bacterial cell walls, can cause severe shock and fever
  • a complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins.* operates in conjunction with an enzyme* transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
  • change in DNA, permanent inheritable alteration in DNA sequence or content of a cell
What is a psychrophile's optimum temperature and range?
  • Fermentation* uses organic compounds, alcohols and acids as final electron acceptor (produces lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, CO2)
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
  • Psychrophile= cold loveroptimum temperature below 15 C (capable of growth 0-20 C)
  • Thermophile= grows optimally above 45 Crange 45-80 C* microbes that live in soil and water , volcanic activity, compost piles
What is the role of pyrogens?
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • pyrogens are circulating substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
  • syndrome= a collection of signs and symptoms that characterize a disease (Ex: Downs Syndrome has a variety of signs and symptoms unique to it)
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
CHAPTER 7- BACTERIAL GROWTH
  • sterilization.=destruction of ALL microbes
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Describe Exponential Growth Phase.
  • Exponential Growth Phase (log phase) = C*logarithmic growth* growth increases drastically*phase continues as long as nutrients and environment is favorable
  • IgE* Y shape* least 0.002%*binds to mast cells and basophils* allergy antigen* worm infections* Hypersensitivity (food allergies, bee stings, nuts, etc)
  • CONJUGATION* bacterial "sex"* donor cell (F+) forms a pilus with recipient (F-)* plasmid is copied and transferred through pilus* Direct transfer method.*Drug resistance, resistance to metals, toxin production, antibiotic resistance
  • Opsonization= Antibodies binds to microbe- encourages phagocytosis
Compare and contrast prokaryotes with eukaryotes.
  • Prokaryotes- no nucleus, bacteria, simple, ancientEukaryotes- have a nucleus, fungi, protozoan, algae, plant, complex
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • Eukaryotes- ETC is in the inner mitochondrial membranesProkaryotes- ETC is in bacterial membrane
  • CENTRAL CORE-nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA but not both)COVERING-protein covering (capsid)
Define sterilization.
  • sterilization.=destruction of ALL microbes
  • separate DNA fragments based on size
  • Fecal transplant therapy transfers healthy feces (with their "good" microbiota) to affected patients via colonoscopy*goal is to restore healthy microbiota
  • introduction of microbes into the environment to restore stability or to clean up toxic pollutants, break down chemicals that would be harmful to other organisms
What was the contribution of Lister?
  • Reverse transcriptase= enzyme possessed by retroviruses that carries out the reversion of RNA---> to DNA (a form of reverse transcription)
  • 1. INITIATION- C1 components bind to antibodies bond to a foreign cell2. AMPLIFICATION AND CASCADE- cascade of enzymatic actions, C1--> C5 is cleaved and bound to membrane 3. POLYMERIZATION- C5 product becomes site for assembly of attack complex made of later C proteins4. MEMBRANE ATTACK- large donut-shaped enzyme complex that punctures small pores through the membrane, leading to cell lysis
  • British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, promoted the idea of sterile portable ports while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients, distinguishing himself as the "father of modern surgery"
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
What type of cells are antigen presenting cell?
  • Reverse transcriptase= enzyme possessed by retroviruses that carries out the reversion of RNA---> to DNA (a form of reverse transcription)
  • Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) ---> present to lymphocytes (T cells must have) the processed antigen on the surfacemacrophagesdendritic cells, B cells
  • Bacteria and fungi breakdown dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be recycled back into natural cycles of living things. (Main forces that drive the structure and content of the soil, water and atmosphere of earth.)
  • Restriction endonucleases= restriction enzymes* enzymes that can clip crosswise a strand of DNA at specific sites
What are three functions of complement?
  • 1. Chemotactic Factors (C3a and C5a)2. Opsonization- attach to phagocytes enhancing phagocytosis3. Membrane Attack Complex- pop holes in membranes and enveloped viruses (C6, 7, 8 and 9)
  • Antigen= molecules that stimulate a response by T and B cells, proteins or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells and viruses*highly individual, * stimulate specific immunity
  • Ratio of Dose of Drug Toxic to Humans/Minimum Effect Dose** Toxic Dose/Effective Dose*closer these two numbers (smaller ratio) greater toxic potentialTI 1.1 riskier choice, smaller TITI 10
  • *Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation.*created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.*renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization
What is ATP synthase's role? Where is it found?
  • Malaria parasites are micro-organisms that belong to the genus Plasmodium. (insect as vector, human host for four different species of Plasmodium)treatment- quinine, chloroquine
  • Capsule= a coating of molecules external to the cell wall, protection, adhesion and receptor functions, glycocalyx*slime layer when it is loose* capsule when it is bound tightly to the cell* protect against white blood cells phagocytes, capsular coating blocks the mechanisms that phagocytes use to attach to and engulf bacteria
  • Antigen= molecules that stimulate a response by T and B cells, proteins or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells and viruses*highly individual, * stimulate specific immunity
  • ATP synthase is an enzyme that generates ATP and is found in the plasma membrane of bacteria (where ATP is made) and the mitochondria of eukaryotes (where ATP is made).
What is the function of the bacterial cell wall?
  • Cell wall- semirigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell, keeps bacteirum from bursting or collapsng because of osmotic pressure changes* Gram + thick layer of peptidoglycan* Gram - Lipopolysaccharide layer, thin peptidoglycan
  • Endospores= dormant body formed within some bacteria (Bacillus and Chlostridium) that allows for their survival in adverse conditions
  • cell membrane= thin sheet of lipid and protein regulates what enters and leaves the cell
  • 1. Surveillance--of the body2. Recognition--of foreign material3. Destruction--of entities deemed to be foreign "SRD"
What is the function of an antibody?
  • Stationary Growth Phase = C in diagram* population enters survival mode* live= death* food and oxygen running out, toxic byproducts, waste buildup* cells stop growing or grow slowly
  • Exponential Growth Phase (log phase) = C*logarithmic growth* growth increases drastically*phase continues as long as nutrients and environment is favorable
  • *reusable*3rd and 4th levels determine active site structure*lower activation energy to get a reaction started*very specific substrate for each type of enzyme*affected by pH, temperature and chemicals*active site where bonds of substrate are broken or formed*don't participate in reaction*"lock and key" analogy
  • An antibody ( or immunoglobulin) is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells and used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects (e.g., bacteria, viruses). The antibody recognizes a unique part of an antigen (foreign object).
CHAPTER 10- GENETIC ENGINEERING
  • genetic defect in development of T and B cells
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What is the cause of DeGeorge's syndrome?
  • congenital absence or immaturity of thymus gland
  • Atopy and anaphylaxis - Type I (allergic reaction)
  • Epidemiology is the study of frequency and distribution of diseases*CDC in US national*WHO for UN world
  • enteric bacteria (Salmonella, Ec. coli, and enterococci) that live as normal intestinal biota of these animals readily share resistance plasmids---> selected--> amplified---> drug resistant infections in humans
Differentiate artificial passive and artificial active immunity.
  • *algae cell wall- made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.* photosynthetic, make up floating community of plankton*essential role in aquatic food web* produce most of the earth's oxygen
  • Direct transmission- involves some type of contact between the infected person and new infectee (portal of exit meeting portal of entry)Indirect transmission- there is an intermediate (a VEHICLE) between the portal of exit and port of entry,
  • Incubation Period= time from initial entry to first symptoms, agent is multiplyingProdomal Period= earliest notable symptomsInvasion Period= well established microbe, most signs and symptoms, highest virulenceCovalescent Period= recovery, healing by immune response **IPIC
  • Artificial- get an injection*Artificial active= get vaccine injection, your body makes antibodies against antigens*Artificial passive= get injection of gamma globulin pooled from human serum, short lasting, 3 months
Summarize the steps in DNA bacterial replication and the enzymes involved, especially DNA polymerase. *pictures-page 239 in book
  • a= antigen binding sites, variableb= light chain, Fab antigen binding fragmentsc= heavy chain, Fc crystallization fragments*disulfide bonding between chains* hinge region where light and heavy join upd= constant regione= variable region (antigen binding sites vary)* compliment binding site- midway down heavy chains, can bind with other antibodies* carbohydrates at base to attach to cells
  • *reusable*3rd and 4th levels determine active site structure*lower activation energy to get a reaction started*very specific substrate for each type of enzyme*affected by pH, temperature and chemicals*active site where bonds of substrate are broken or formed*don't participate in reaction*"lock and key" analogy
  • 1. Origin (replication fork) segment rich in A=T (less energy to break than triple bonded C and G)* 2 forks in bacteria cells, multiple in eukary.2. Topoisomerases- unwind DNA helix3. Helicases- unzip the double strand, break H bonds4. Single stranded bonding proteins- keep strands apart and prevent bonding back on themselves5. DNA polymerases- add bases to the chain 5'--> 3'Leading strand= forms continuously 5'-->3'Lagging strand- forms in fragments away from forkRNA primase- makes RNA primer- sets startfor lagging strandOkazaki fragments- all the pieces of DNALigase= seals the nicks in pieces and when primer is cut out
  • TRANSDUCTION*"Piggyback DNA"* foreign DNA brought by a bacteriophage is incorporated into host cell chromosome*DNA from lysed bacterial cell- bacteriophage carries*DNA recombines with new host cell chromosome*must be same species of bacteria*Indirect
Compare and contrast Epidemic vs. Pandemic vs. Endemic
  • Vertical- from parent to offspringHorizontal- from person to person or intermediate
  • Direct transmission- involves some type of contact between the infected person and new infectee (portal of exit meeting portal of entry)Indirect transmission- there is an intermediate (a VEHICLE) between the portal of exit and port of entry,
  • COVERING-*envelope (phospholipid bilayer) taken from host cell, (great for fooling the host into thinking it is not an invader*spikes= protruding glycoproteins for attachment to host cell, can be found on capsid or enveloped virusCENTRAL CORE-enzymes matrix proteins
  • Epidemic= infectious disease transmitted at much higher incidence (a lot of dots clustered in areas)Endemic= "always there", steady numbers over time in a geographic location (single dots in many different locations)Pandemic= disease that is worldwide, higher incidence
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